整體設計

Overall design

1、確定翼型

1. Determine airfoil

我們要根據模型飛機的不同用途去選擇不同的翼型。翼型很多，好幾千種。但歸納起來，飛機的翼型大致分為三種。一是平凸翼型，這種翼型的特點是升力大，尤其是低速飛行時。不過，阻力中庸，且不太適合倒飛。這種翼型主要應用在練習機和像真機上。二是雙凸翼型。其中雙凸對稱翼型的特點是在有一定迎角下產生升力，零度迎角時不產生升力。飛機在正飛和到飛時的機頭俯仰變化不大。這種翼型主要應用在特技機上。三是凹凸翼型。這種翼型升力較大，尤其是在慢速時升力表現較其它翼型優異，但阻力也較大。這種翼型主要應用在滑翔機上和特種飛機上。另外，機翼的厚度也是有講究的。同一個翼型，厚度大的低速升力大，不過阻力也較大。厚度小的低速升力小，不過阻力也較小。實際上就選用翼型而言，它是一個比較復雜、技術含量較高的問題。其基本確定思路是：根據飛行高度、翼弦、飛行速度等參數來確定該飛機所需的雷諾數，再根據相應的雷諾數和您的機型找出合適的翼型。還有，很多真飛機的翼型并不能直接用于模型飛機，等等。這個問題在這就不詳述了。機翼常見的形狀又分為：矩形翼、后掠翼、三角翼和紡錘翼(橢圓翼)。矩形翼結構簡單，制作容易，但是重量較大，適合于低速飛行。后掠翼從翼根到翼梢有漸變，結構復雜，制作也有一定難度。后掠的另一個作用是能在機翼安裝角為0度時，產生上反1-2度的上反效果。三角翼制作復雜，翼尖的攻角不好做準確，翼根受力大，根部要做特別加強。這種機翼主要用在高速飛機上。紡錘翼的受力比較均勻，制作難度也不小，這種機翼主要用在像真機上。翼梢的處理。由于機翼下面的壓力大于機翼上面的壓力，在翼梢處，從下到上就形成了渦流，這種渦流在翼梢處產生誘導阻力，使升力和發動機功率都會受到損失。為了減少翼梢渦流的影響，人們采取改變翼梢形狀的辦法來解決它。

We need to choose different airfoils based on the different uses of the model aircraft. There are many airfoils, thousands of different. But in summary, the airfoil of an aircraft can be roughly divided into three types. One is the flat convex airfoil, which is characterized by high lift, especially during low-speed flight. However, the resistance is moderate and not very suitable for flying backwards. This type of airfoil is mainly used in practice and real aircraft. The second is the biconvex airfoil. The characteristic of biconvex symmetric airfoils is that they generate lift at a certain angle of attack and do not generate lift at zero degrees of attack. The nose pitch of the aircraft does not change much during normal and incoming flight. This type of airfoil is mainly used in stunt aircraft. The third is the concave convex airfoil. This type of airfoil has a higher lift, especially at slow speeds, with better lift performance than other airfoils, but also higher drag. This type of airfoil is mainly used in gliders and special aircraft. In addition, the thickness of the wings is also carefully considered. The same airfoil has a thicker low-speed lift, but also higher drag. Low speed engines with smaller thickness have lower lift, but also lower drag. In fact, when it comes to choosing an airfoil, it is a relatively complex and technically advanced issue. The basic determination idea is to determine the required Reynolds number for the aircraft based on parameters such as flight altitude, wing chord, and flight speed, and then find the appropriate airfoil based on the corresponding Reynolds number and your aircraft model. Moreover, many real aircraft airfoils cannot be directly used for model aircraft, and so on. This issue will not be elaborated on here. The common shapes of wings are divided into rectangular wings, swept wings, delta wings, and spindle wings (elliptical wings). The rectangular wing structure is simple and easy to manufacture, but it is heavy and suitable for low-speed flight. The swept wing has a gradual transition from the root to the tip, and its structure is complex, making it difficult to manufacture. Another function of sweep back is to produce an up reflection effect of 1-2 degrees when the wing installation angle is 0 degrees. The production of delta wings is complex, and the angle of attack at the wing tip is not accurate. The wing root is subjected to a large force, and the root needs to be specially strengthened. This type of wing is mainly used on high-speed aircraft. The force on the spindle wing is relatively uniform, and the production difficulty is not small. This type of wing is mainly used in real aircraft. Treatment of wing tips. Due to the pressure below the wing being greater than the pressure above it, vortices are formed at the wing tips from bottom to top, which induce drag at the wing tips, resulting in loss of lift and engine power. In order to reduce the influence of wing tip vortex, people adopt the method of changing the shape of the wing tip to solve it.

2、確定機翼的面積

2. Determine the area of the wing

模型飛機能不能飛起來，好不好飛，起飛降落速度快不快，翼載荷非常重要。一般講，滑翔機的翼載荷在35克/平方分米以下，普通固定翼飛機的翼載荷為35-100克/平方分米，像真機的翼載荷在100克/平方分米，甚至更多。還有，普通固定翼飛機的展弦比應在5-6之間。確定副翼的面積機翼的尺寸確定后，就該算出副翼的面積了。副翼面積應占機翼面積的20%左右,其長度應為機翼的30-80%之間。

Whether a model aircraft can fly, whether it is easy to fly, and whether the takeoff and landing speed is fast, the wing load is very important. Generally speaking, the wing load of a glider is below 35 grams per square centimeter, while the wing load of a regular fixed wing aircraft is between 35-100 grams per square centimeter, similar to a real aircraft with a wing load of 100 grams per square centimeter or even more. Also, the aspect ratio of a regular fixed wing aircraft should be between 5-6. After determining the area of the aileron and the size of the wing, it is time to calculate the area of the aileron. The aileron area should account for about 20% of the wing area, and its length should be between 30-80% of the wing.

3、確定機翼安裝角

3. Determine wing installation angle

以飛機拉力軸線為基準, 機翼的`翼弦線與拉力軸線的夾角就是機翼安裝角。機翼安裝角應在正0 -3度之間。機翼設計安裝角的目的，是為了為使飛機在低速下有較高的升力。設計時要不要安裝角，主要看飛機的翼型和翼載荷。有的翼型有安裝角才能產生升力，如雙凸對稱翼。但是，大部分不用安裝角就能產生升力。翼載荷較大的飛機，為了保證飛機在起飛著陸和慢速度飛行時有較大的升力，需要設計安裝角。任何事物都是一分為二的，設計有安裝角的飛機，飛行阻力大，會消耗一部分發動機功率。安裝角超過6度以上的，更要小心，在慢速爬升和轉彎的的情況下，很容易進入失速。

Based on the aircraft tension axis, the angle between the chord line of the wing and the tension axis is the wing installation angle. The wing installation angle should be between positive 0-3 degrees. The purpose of wing design installation angle is to provide higher lift for the aircraft at low speeds. Whether to install angles during design mainly depends on the aircraft's airfoil and wing load. Some airfoils have installation angles to generate lift, such as doubly convex symmetric wings. However, most can generate lift without the need for installation angles. For aircraft with large wing loads, in order to ensure a high lift during takeoff, landing, and slow flight, it is necessary to design installation angles. Everything is divided into two, and an aircraft designed with installation angles has high flight resistance and consumes a portion of engine power. For installation angles exceeding 6 degrees, be even more careful as slow climbing and turning can easily lead to stalling.

4、確定機翼上反角

4. Determine the opposite angle on the wing

機翼的上反角，是為了保證飛機橫向的穩定性。有上反角的飛機，當機翼副翼不起作用時還能用方向舵轉彎。上反角越大，飛機的橫向穩定性就越好，反之就越差。但是，上反角也有它的兩面性。飛機橫向太穩定了，反而不利于快速橫滾，這恰恰又是特技機所不需要的。所以，一般特技機采取0度上反角。

The upper corner of the wing is to ensure the lateral stability of the aircraft. An aircraft with an upturned angle can still turn with the rudder when the wing ailerons are not working. The larger the upper angle, the better the lateral stability of the aircraft, and vice versa. However, the upper and lower corners also have their duality. The plane's lateral stability is too stable, which is not conducive to rapid roll, which is exactly what stunt planes do not need. So, typical stunt machines adopt a 0 degree upward angle.

5、確定重心位置

5. Determine the center of gravity position

重心的確定非常重要，重心太靠前，飛機就頭沉，起飛降落抬頭困難。同時，飛行中因需大量的升降舵來配平，也消耗了大量動力。重心太靠后的話，俯仰太靈敏，不易操作，甚至造成俯仰過度。一般飛機的重心在機翼前緣后的25~30%平均氣動弦長處。特技機27~40%。在允許范圍內，重心適當靠前，飛機比較穩定

The determination of the center of gravity is very important. If the center of gravity is too forward, the aircraft will sink and it will be difficult to lift up during takeoff and landing. At the same time, during flight, a large amount of elevators are required for balancing, which also consumes a lot of power. If the center of gravity is too far back, the pitch will be too sensitive, difficult to operate, and even cause excessive pitch. The center of gravity of a typical aircraft is at 25-30% of the average aerodynamic chord length behind the leading edge of the wing. 27-40% stunt machines. Within the allowable range, the center of gravity should be appropriately advanced, and the aircraft should be relatively stable

6、確定機身長度

6. Determine the length of the fuselage

翼展和機身的比例一般是70--80%。

The ratio of wingspan to fuselage is generally 70-80%.

7、確定機頭的長度

7. Determine the length of the machine head

機頭的長度(指機翼前緣到螺旋漿后平面的之間的距離),等于或小于翼展的15%。

The length of the nose (referring to the distance between the leading edge of the wing and the plane behind the propeller) is equal to or less than 15% of the wingspan.

8、確定垂直尾翼的面積

8. Determine the area of the vertical tail wing

垂直尾翼是用來保證飛機的縱向穩定性的。垂直尾翼面積越大，縱向穩定性越好。當然，垂直尾翼面積的大小，還要以飛機的速度而定。速度大的飛機，垂直尾翼面積越大，反之就小。垂直尾翼面積占機翼的10%。在保證垂直尾翼面積的基礎上，垂直尾翼的形狀，根據自己的喜好可自行設計。

The vertical tail is used to ensure the longitudinal stability of the aircraft. The larger the vertical tail area, the better the longitudinal stability. Of course, the size of the vertical tail area also depends on the aircraft's speed. The faster the aircraft, the larger the vertical tail area, and vice versa. The vertical tail area accounts for 10% of the wing area. On the basis of ensuring the area of the vertical tail, the shape of the vertical tail can be designed according to personal preferences.

9、確定方向舵的面積

9. Determine the area of the rudder

方向舵面積約為垂直尾翼面積的25%。如果是特技機，方向舵面積可增大。

The rudder area is approximately 25% of the vertical tail area. If it is a stunt aircraft, the rudder area can be increased.

10、確定水平尾翼的翼型和面積

10. Determine the airfoil and area of the horizontal tail wing

水平尾翼對整架飛機來說，也是一個很重要的問題。我們有必要先搞清常規布局飛機的氣動配平原理。形象地講，飛機在空中的氣動平衡就像一個人挑水。肩膀是飛機升力的總焦點，重心就是前面的水桶，水平尾翼就是后面的水桶。升力的總焦點不隨飛機迎角的變化而變化，永遠固定在一個點上。首先，重心是在升力總焦點的前部，所以它起的作用是起低頭力矩。由此可知，水平尾翼和機翼的功能恰恰相反，它是用來產生負升力的，所以它起的作用是抬頭力矩，以達到飛機配平的目的。由此可知，水平尾翼只能采用雙凸對稱翼型和平板翼型，不能采用有升力平凸翼型。水平尾翼的面積應為機翼面積的20-25%。我選定22%，計算后得出水平尾翼的面積為89100平方毫米。同時要注意，水平尾翼的寬度約等于0.7個機翼的弦長。

The horizontal tail is also a very important issue for the entire aircraft. It is necessary for us to first understand the aerodynamic trim principles of conventional layout aircraft. Visually speaking, the aerodynamic balance of an aircraft in the air is like a person carrying water. The shoulders are the overall focus of the aircraft's lift, the center of gravity is the front bucket, and the horizontal tail is the rear bucket. The total focus of lift does not change with the angle of attack of the aircraft and is always fixed at a point. Firstly, the center of gravity is located at the front of the total lift focal point, so its function is to provide a downward torque. From this, it can be seen that the functions of the horizontal tail and wings are exactly the opposite. They are used to generate negative lift, so their role is to achieve lift torque to achieve aircraft trim. From this, it can be seen that the horizontal tail can only use biconvex symmetric airfoils and flat airfoils, and cannot use lift planar convex airfoils. The area of the horizontal tail should be 20-25% of the wing area. I selected 22% and calculated that the area of the horizontal tail wing is 89100 square millimeters. Meanwhile, it should be noted that the width of the horizontal tail is approximately equal to the chord length of 0.7 wings.

11、確定升降舵面積

11. Determine the elevator area

升降舵的面積約為水平尾翼積的20-25%。如果是特技機，升降舵面積可增大。

The area of the elevator is approximately 20-25% of the horizontal tail area. If it is a stunt aircraft, the elevator area can be increased.

12、確定水平尾翼的安裝位置

12. Determine the installation position of the horizontal tail wing

從機翼前緣到水平尾翼之間的距離(就是尾力臂的長度),大致等于翼弦長的3倍。此距離短時,操縱時反應靈敏，但是俯仰不精確。此距離長時,操縱反應稍慢，但俯仰較精確。F3A的機身長度大于翼展就是這個理論的實際應用,它的目的主要是為了精確。垂直尾翼、水平尾翼和尾力臂這三個要素合起來，就是“尾容量”。尾容量的大小，是說它對飛機的穩定和姿態變化貢獻的大小。這個問題我們用真飛機來說明一下。像米格15和F16高速飛行的飛機，為了保證在高速飛行時的縱向穩定，其垂直尾翼設計得又大又高。像SU27和F18甚至設計成雙垂直尾翼。而像運輸機和客機，垂直尾翼就小得多。

The distance from the leading edge of the wing to the horizontal tail (i.e. the length of the tail arm) is approximately three times the chord length of the wing. This distance is short, and the response is sensitive during operation, but the pitch is not precise. When this distance is long, the control response is slightly slower, but the pitch is more precise. The actual application of this theory is that the fuselage length of F3A is greater than the wingspan, and its main purpose is to achieve accuracy. The three elements of vertical tail, horizontal tail, and tail force arm combined are called "tail capacity". The size of the tail capacity refers to its contribution to the stability and attitude changes of the aircraft. Let's use real airplanes to illustrate this issue. Aircraft like the MiG 15 and F16 are designed with large and high vertical tails to ensure longitudinal stability during high-speed flight. Even the SU27 and F18 are designed with dual vertical tail fins. And for transport and passenger planes, the vertical tail is much smaller.

13、確定起落架

13. Determine landing gear

一般飛機的起落架分前三點和后三點兩種。前三點起落架，起飛降落時方向容易控制。但著陸粗暴時很容易損壞起落架，轉彎速度較快時容易向一邊側翻，導致機翼和螺旋槳受損。后三點雖然在起飛降落時的方向控不如前三點好。但是其它方面較前三點都好。尤其是它能承受粗暴著陸，大大增加了初學者的信心。前起落架的安裝位置一定要在飛機的重心前8公分左右，以免滑跑時折跟頭。

The landing gear of a general aircraft is divided into two types: the front three-point and the rear three-point. The first three landing gears make it easy to control the direction during takeoff and landing. But when landing rough, it is easy to damage the landing gear, and when turning quickly, it is easy to roll to the side, causing damage to the wings and propellers. Although the direction control during takeoff and landing is not as good as the first three points at the last three points. But other aspects are better than the first three. Especially its ability to withstand rough landings greatly increases the confidence of beginners. The installation position of the front landing gear must be about 8 centimeters in front of the aircraft's center of gravity to avoid turning the somersault during taxiing.

14、確定發動機

14. Determine the engine

一般講，滑翔機的功重比為0.5左右。普通飛機的功重比為0.8—1左右。特技機功重比大于1以上。安裝發動機時，要有向下和向右安裝角，以解決螺旋槳的滑流對飛機模型左偏航和高速飛行時因升力增大引起飛機模型抬頭的影響。其方法是以拉力軸線為基準，從后往前看，發動機應有右拉2度，下拉1.5度的安裝角。當然，根據飛機的不同，這個角度還要根據飛行中的實際情況作進一步的調整。

Generally speaking, the power to weight ratio of a glider is around 0.5. The power to weight ratio of a regular aircraft is around 0.8-1. The stunt machine has a power to weight ratio greater than 1. When installing the engine, there should be downward and rightward installation angles to address the impact of propeller slippage on the left yaw of the aircraft model and the lift increase causing the aircraft model to lift up during high-speed flight. The method is to use the tension axis as the reference, and when viewed from the back to the front, the engine should have an installation angle of 2 degrees pulled to the right and 1.5 degrees pulled down. Of course, depending on the aircraft, this angle needs to be further adjusted according to the actual situation during flight.

就功重比而言，我們的航模飛機與真飛機有著很大的不同。我們航模的功重比都能輕松的達到1，而真飛機的功重比大都在0.3至0.6之間，唯有高性能戰斗機才能接近或超過1。這也就是說，我們在飛航模中很多飛行都是在臨界失速和不嚴重的失速的情況下飛行的，如低速度下的急轉彎、急上升、吊機等。只是由于發動機的拉力大，把失速這一情況掩蓋罷了。所以我們在飛航模時，很少能飛出真飛機那種感覺。這也是我們很多朋友在飛像真機時，很容易出現失速墜機的主要原因。

In terms of power to weight ratio, our model aircraft is very different from real aircraft. Our aircraft models can easily achieve a power to weight ratio of 1, while the power to weight ratio of real aircraft is mostly between 0.3 and 0.6, and only high-performance fighter jets can approach or exceed 1. That is to say, many of our flights in the flight model are conducted under critical stall and non severe stall conditions, such as sharp turns, sharp ascents, cranes, etc. at low speeds. It's just that the stalling situation is masked due to the high pulling force of the engine. So when we fly the aircraft model, we rarely get the feeling of flying a real airplane. This is also the main reason why many of our friends are prone to stalling and crashing when flying real aircraft.

繪制三面圖

Draw a three sided diagram

根據上面的設計和計算結果，我們就可以繪制出自己需要的飛機了。繪制三面圖的主要目的是為了得到您想要的飛機效果，并確定每個部件的形狀和位置。使您在以后的工作中，有一個基本的藍圖。

Based on the design and calculation results above, we can draw the aircraft we need. The main purpose of drawing a three sided diagram is to obtain the desired aircraft effect and determine the shape and position of each component. To provide you with a basic blueprint for your future work.

繪制結構圖

Draw a structural diagram

繪制結構圖的主要目的是為了確定每個部件的布局和制作步驟。如：哪個部件用什么材料，先做哪個部件后作哪個部件，部件與部件的結合方法等等。如果您胸有成竹，這一步可以省略。

The main purpose of drawing a structural diagram is to determine the layout and production steps of each component. For example, which component uses what material, which component is made first and which component is made later, the method of combining components, and so on. If you are confident, this step can be omitted.

放樣和組裝

Layout and assembly

根據您繪制的圖紙，應做一比一的放樣圖。目的是在組裝飛機各部件時，在放樣圖上粘接各部件。

According to the blueprint you have drawn, a one-to-one layout should be made. The purpose is to bond the various components on the layout diagram during the assembly of aircraft components.